{
  "notes": [
    {
      "id": "present-indicative-conjugation",
      "title": "Present Indicative Conjugation",
      "category": "Core Concepts",
      "body": "The present indicative describes what someone **does** or **is doing** right now, habitually, or as a general truth. To conjugate a regular verb, drop the infinitive ending (-ar, -er, -ir) and add the person-ending that matches the subject.\n\n**-ar verbs** (hablar — to speak):\n*hablo, hablas, habla, hablamos, habláis, hablan*\n\n**-er verbs** (comer — to eat):\n*como, comes, come, comemos, coméis, comen*\n\n**-ir verbs** (vivir — to live):\n*vivo, vives, vive, vivimos, vivís, viven*\n\nNotice -er and -ir verbs share the same endings EXCEPT in the nosotros and vosotros forms (-emos/-éis vs -imos/-ís).\n\n*Yo hablo español todos los días.* — I speak Spanish every day.\n*¿Tú comes carne?* — Do you eat meat?\n*Ellos viven en Madrid.* — They live in Madrid.\n\n**Key tip:** Since the verb ending already tells you the subject, Spanish often drops subject pronouns: *Hablo español* already means *I speak Spanish.*"
    },
    {
      "id": "articles-and-gender",
      "title": "Articles & Gender",
      "category": "Core Concepts",
      "body": "Every Spanish noun has a grammatical gender (masculine or feminine) and a number (singular or plural). The article must agree with both.\n\n**Definite articles** (the):\n*el* (m. sing.), *la* (f. sing.), *los* (m. pl.), *las* (f. pl.)\n\n**Indefinite articles** (a/an/some):\n*un* (m. sing.), *una* (f. sing.), *unos* (m. pl.), *unas* (f. pl.)\n\n*el libro / los libros* — the book(s)\n*la mesa / las mesas* — the table(s)\n*un amigo / unos amigos* — a friend / some friends\n\n**General rules:**\n- Nouns ending in -o are usually masculine: *el carro, el vino.*\n- Nouns ending in -a are usually feminine: *la casa, la silla.*\n- Nouns ending in -ción, -sión, -dad, -tad are feminine: *la canción, la ciudad.*\n- Nouns ending in -ma, -pa, -ta from Greek are often masculine: *el problema, el mapa, el planeta.*\n\n**Common exceptions to memorize:**\n*la mano, la foto, la moto, la radio* (feminine but end in -o)\n*el día, el clima, el tema, el idioma, el sofá* (masculine but end in -a)\n\n**Tip:** Always learn a new noun together with its article — *la mano*, not just *mano*."
    },
    {
      "id": "possessive-adjectives",
      "title": "Possessive Adjectives",
      "category": "Adjectives",
      "body": "Spanish possessive adjectives go **before** the noun and agree in number with the item possessed (not with the possessor). Only *nuestro* and *vuestro* also agree in gender.\n\n| | Singular | Plural |\n|---|---|---|\n| my | mi | mis |\n| your (tú) | tu | tus |\n| his/her/your(Ud.) | su | sus |\n| our | nuestro/a | nuestros/as |\n| your (vosotros) | vuestro/a | vuestros/as |\n| their/your(Uds.) | su | sus |\n\n*mi libro / mis libros* — my book(s)\n*tu casa / tus casas* — your house(s)\n*nuestra familia / nuestros amigos* — our family / our friends\n\n**Note:** *tu* (your) has no accent; *tú* (you) does.\n\n**Ambiguity of *su*:** *su* can mean his, her, its, your (Ud./Uds.), or their. Context or *de + pronoun* clarifies: *la casa de él* (his house), *la casa de ella* (her house).\n\n*Su coche es rojo* — His / Her / Their / Your car is red.\n*El coche de ella es rojo.* — Her car is red."
    },
    {
      "id": "demonstrative-adjectives",
      "title": "Demonstrative Adjectives",
      "category": "Adjectives",
      "body": "Demonstratives point to something and agree with the noun in gender and number. Spanish has three levels of distance:\n\n**este/esta/estos/estas** — this/these (near the speaker)\n**ese/esa/esos/esas** — that/those (near the listener)\n**aquel/aquella/aquellos/aquellas** — that/those over there (far from both)\n\n*este libro* — this book\n*esta mesa* — this table\n*esos zapatos* — those shoes (near you)\n*aquellas montañas* — those mountains (in the distance)\n\n**Neuter pronouns** — use *esto, eso, aquello* when pointing to something unidentified or to an abstract idea. They don't change form.\n\n*¿Qué es esto?* — What is this?\n*Eso no me gusta.* — I don't like that.\n*Aquello fue un desastre.* — That was a disaster.\n\n**Tip:** *este/ese/aquel* follow the distance triangle — speaker → listener → beyond. The *-ese* forms (ese/esos) sit in the middle."
    },
    {
      "id": "greetings-farewells",
      "title": "Greetings & Farewells",
      "category": "Core Concepts",
      "body": "Spanish greetings are highly time-of-day aware. Using the wrong one sounds jarring.\n\n**Greetings**\n*hola* — hi (anytime)\n*buenos días* — good morning (until ~noon)\n*buenas tardes* — good afternoon (noon until sunset)\n*buenas noches* — good evening / good night (after dark, also used when leaving)\n\n**Common questions**\n*¿cómo estás?* — how are you? (tú)\n*¿cómo está usted?* — how are you? (formal)\n*¿qué tal?* — what's up?\n*¿qué hay?* — what's new?\n*¿cómo te va?* — how's it going?\n\n**Responses**\n*bien, gracias* — fine, thanks\n*muy bien* — very well\n*más o menos* — so-so\n*todo bien* — all good\n\n**Introductions**\n*mucho gusto* — nice to meet you\n*encantado / encantada* — delighted (m./f.)\n*igualmente* — likewise\n\n**Farewells**\n*adiós* — goodbye\n*hasta luego* — see you later\n*hasta pronto* — see you soon\n*hasta mañana* — see you tomorrow\n*nos vemos* — see you (around)\n*chau / chao* — bye (informal)\n\n**Tip:** *buenas noches* works for both *good evening* (hello) and *good night* (goodbye) — context tells which."
    },
    {
      "id": "poder-infinitive",
      "title": "Poder + Infinitive",
      "category": "Irregular Verbs",
      "body": "*Poder* means \"to be able to / can\" and is one of the most-used verbs in Spanish. It's an o→ue stem-changer in the present tense (all forms except nosotros and vosotros) and takes an infinitive directly — no preposition.\n\n**Present indicative:**\n*puedo, puedes, puede, podemos, podéis, pueden*\n\n**Preterite (irregular stem pud-):**\n*pude, pudiste, pudo, pudimos, pudisteis, pudieron*\n\n**Future / Conditional stem:** *podr-*\n*podré, podrás, podrá...* (future)\n*podría, podrías, podría...* (conditional — often softens a request)\n\n*Puedo hablar tres idiomas.* — I can speak three languages.\n*¿Puedes ayudarme?* — Can you help me?\n*No pudimos ir al concierto.* — We couldn't go to the concert.\n*¿Podrías pasar la sal?* — Could you pass the salt? (polite request)\n\n**Pattern:** poder + infinitive. Never *poder a* or *poder de*.\n\n**Nuance:** The preterite *pude* often carries the meaning \"managed to / succeeded in\"; *no pude* means \"I failed to / couldn't.\""
    },
    {
      "id": "al-del-contractions",
      "title": "al & del Contractions",
      "category": "Core Concepts",
      "body": "Spanish has only **two mandatory contractions**, and they both collapse the redundant vowel between a preposition and the article *el*.\n\n**a + el = al** (to the)\n**de + el = del** (of the / from the)\n\n*Voy al mercado.* — I'm going to the market. (NOT *a el*)\n*La puerta del coche está abierta.* — The door of the car is open. (NOT *de el*)\n\nNo other preposition + article pair contracts:\n*en el parque, por el camino, con el amigo* — all uncontracted.\n\nNone of the other articles contract either:\n*a la escuela, a los niños, a las chicas, de la casa, de los libros* — all separate.\n\n**Exception — proper names:** Don't contract with *Él* (the pronoun *he*) or when *El* is part of a name (*El Salvador*, *El Paso*).\n\n*Le doy el regalo a él.* — I give the gift to him. (NOT *al*)\n*Vuelvo de El Salvador.* — I'm coming back from El Salvador. (NOT *del*)\n\n**Tip:** Think of al/del as a pronunciation shortcut — Spanish hates two vowels smashed together (a-el, de-el)."
    },
    {
      "id": "prepositional-pronouns",
      "title": "Prepositional Pronouns",
      "category": "Pronouns",
      "body": "After most prepositions (a, de, en, para, por, sin, sobre, etc.) Spanish uses a special set of object-of-preposition pronouns. Only *yo* and *tú* change form.\n\n| Subject | After preposition |\n|---|---|\n| yo | **mí** |\n| tú | **ti** |\n| él / ella / usted | él / ella / usted |\n| nosotros/as | nosotros/as |\n| vosotros/as | vosotros/as |\n| ellos/as / ustedes | ellos/as / ustedes |\n\n*Este regalo es para mí.* — This gift is for me.\n*No puedo ir sin ti.* — I can't go without you.\n*Hablan de nosotros.* — They're talking about us.\n*Pienso en ella.* — I'm thinking about her.\n\n**Note the accent:** *mí* (me) has an accent, *mi* (my) doesn't. *ti* never has an accent.\n\n**Special: con + mí/ti**\nThe preposition *con* fuses with *mí* and *ti* into single words:\n*conmigo* — with me\n*contigo* — with you\n*consigo* — with himself/herself/yourself (reflexive, less common)\n\n*¿Quieres venir conmigo?* — Do you want to come with me?\n*Iré contigo.* — I'll go with you.\n\n**Exceptions:** After *entre, según, incluso, excepto, menos* use subject pronouns: *entre tú y yo* — between you and me."
    },
    {
      "id": "irregular-yo-verbs",
      "title": "Irregular Yo Verbs",
      "category": "Irregular Verbs",
      "body": "A group of Spanish verbs conjugates regularly in every present-tense form **except yo**, which takes a special irregular ending. Once you learn these yo forms, the rest of the conjugation behaves normally.\n\n**-go endings (very common):**\n*hacer → hago* (I do/make)\n*poner → pongo* (I put)\n*salir → salgo* (I leave)\n*tener → tengo* (I have) — also stem-changes in tú/él forms\n*venir → vengo* (I come) — also stem-changes\n*decir → digo* (I say) — also stem-changes\n*traer → traigo* (I bring)\n*oír → oigo* (I hear)\n*caer → caigo* (I fall)\n\n**-zco endings** (verbs ending in -cer or -cir after a vowel):\n*conocer → conozco* (I know)\n*conducir → conduzco* (I drive)\n*traducir → traduzco* (I translate)\n*ofrecer → ofrezco* (I offer)\n*parecer → parezco* (I seem)\n\n**-oy endings:**\n*dar → doy* (I give)\n*estar → estoy* (I am)\n*ir → voy* (I go)\n*ser → soy* (I am)\n\n**Standalone irregulars:**\n*ver → veo* (I see)\n*saber → sé* (I know — has an accent)\n*caber → quepo* (I fit)\n\n*Yo tengo dos hermanos.* — I have two brothers.\n*Hago la tarea cada día.* — I do homework every day.\n*Conozco a tu padre.* — I know your father."
    },
    {
      "id": "stem-changing-verbs",
      "title": "Stem-Changing Verbs",
      "category": "Irregular Verbs",
      "body": "Stem-changing verbs modify the vowel inside their stem in **all present-tense forms except nosotros and vosotros**. The affected forms map out like a boot on a conjugation chart — hence *boot verbs*.\n\n**Four categories:**\n\n**1. e → ie** (pensar — to think):\n*pienso, piensas, piensa, pensamos, pensáis, piensan*\nAlso: cerrar, empezar, querer, entender, preferir, sentir.\n\n**2. o → ue** (poder — to be able):\n*puedo, puedes, puede, podemos, podéis, pueden*\nAlso: dormir, contar, volver, encontrar, recordar, morir.\n\n**3. e → i** (only -ir verbs) (pedir — to ask for):\n*pido, pides, pide, pedimos, pedís, piden*\nAlso: servir, repetir, seguir, vestirse.\n\n**4. u → ue** (*jugar* — to play — the ONLY one):\n*juego, juegas, juega, jugamos, jugáis, juegan*\n\n**Why nosotros/vosotros are spared:** the stress falls on the ending in those forms, so the stem vowel stays unstressed and unchanged.\n\n*Yo quiero un café.* — I want a coffee.\n*Nosotros queremos café.* — We want coffee. (no change)\n*Ella duerme ocho horas.* — She sleeps eight hours.\n*Nosotros dormimos poco.* — We sleep little. (no change)\n*Pido la cuenta.* — I ask for the check.\n\n**Tip:** Stem changes carry through into the present subjunctive and sometimes affect the gerund (*durmiendo, pidiendo*) and 3rd-person preterite (*durmió, pidió*) — but only for -ir verbs."
    },
    {
      "id": "stressed-possessives",
      "title": "Stressed Possessive Adjectives",
      "category": "Adjectives",
      "body": "Stressed possessives are the \"long-form\" possessives used for emphasis, after the noun, or after *ser*. Unlike the short forms (mi, tu, su…), they agree in BOTH gender and number with the item possessed.\n\n| | Singular m. / f. | Plural m. / f. |\n|---|---|---|\n| mine | mío / mía | míos / mías |\n| yours (tú) | tuyo / tuya | tuyos / tuyas |\n| his/hers/yours (Ud.) | suyo / suya | suyos / suyas |\n| ours | nuestro / nuestra | nuestros / nuestras |\n| yours (vosotros) | vuestro / vuestra | vuestros / vuestras |\n| theirs/yours (Uds.) | suyo / suya | suyos / suyas |\n\n**Used three ways:**\n\n1. **After a noun** (emphatic, often with *un/una*):\n*un amigo mío* — a friend of mine\n*una idea tuya* — an idea of yours\n*unos primos nuestros* — some cousins of ours\n\n2. **After ser** (ownership):\n*El libro es mío.* — The book is mine.\n*Esta casa es nuestra.* — This house is ours.\n*¿Son tuyas estas llaves?* — Are these keys yours?\n\n3. **As a pronoun** with *el / la / los / las*:\n*Mi coche es rojo; el tuyo es azul.* — My car is red; yours is blue.\n*Tus hijos y los míos juegan juntos.* — Your kids and mine play together.\n\n**Ambiguity of *suyo***: Like short *su*, stressed *suyo/a* can mean his, hers, yours (Ud./Uds.), or theirs. Use *de él / de ella* if ambiguous."
    },
    {
      "id": "present-perfect-tense",
      "title": "Present Perfect",
      "category": "Verb Tenses",
      "body": "The present perfect (*pretérito perfecto*) describes what someone **has done** — an action completed in the recent past or within an unfinished time frame that extends to now (today, this week, this year, ever).\n\n**Formula:** *haber* (present) + past participle\n\n| | haber |\n|---|---|\n| yo | he |\n| tú | has |\n| él/ella/Ud. | ha |\n| nosotros | hemos |\n| vosotros | habéis |\n| ellos/Uds. | han |\n\n**Regular participles:**\n-ar verbs → -ado: *hablar → hablado*\n-er/-ir verbs → -ido: *comer → comido, vivir → vivido*\n\n**Common irregular participles:**\n*abrir → abierto* (opened)\n*decir → dicho* (said)\n*escribir → escrito* (written)\n*hacer → hecho* (done/made)\n*morir → muerto* (died)\n*poner → puesto* (put)\n*romper → roto* (broken)\n*ver → visto* (seen)\n*volver → vuelto* (returned)\n*cubrir → cubierto* (covered)\n*resolver → resuelto* (solved)\n\n*He comido demasiado hoy.* — I have eaten too much today.\n*¿Has visto la nueva película?* — Have you seen the new movie?\n*Todavía no han llegado.* — They haven't arrived yet.\n*Este año hemos viajado mucho.* — This year we've traveled a lot.\n\n**Key rule:** *Haber* and the participle must stay together. Never put a pronoun between them: *Lo he comido*, NOT *He lo comido*.\n\n**Tip:** The participle never changes in this tense — always ends in -o. (It only agrees in gender/number when used as an adjective with *ser/estar*.)"
    },
    {
      "id": "future-perfect-tense",
      "title": "Future Perfect",
      "category": "Verb Tenses",
      "body": "The future perfect (*futuro perfecto*) describes what **will have happened** by some point in the future. It's also used to speculate about the recent past (\"they must have…\").\n\n**Formula:** *haber* (future) + past participle\n\n| | haber |\n|---|---|\n| yo | habré |\n| tú | habrás |\n| él/ella/Ud. | habrá |\n| nosotros | habremos |\n| vosotros | habréis |\n| ellos/Uds. | habrán |\n\n**Two main uses:**\n\n1. **Will-have-happened before a future point:**\n*Para las ocho, habré terminado el trabajo.* — By eight, I will have finished the work.\n*Cuando lleguen, ya habremos cenado.* — By the time they arrive, we'll have eaten.\n*En un año, habrás aprendido mucho español.* — In a year, you'll have learned a lot of Spanish.\n\n2. **Speculation / guess about recent past** (like English \"must have…\"):\n*Habrá olvidado la cita.* — He must have forgotten the appointment.\n*Se habrán ido ya.* — They must have left already.\n*¿Habrás dejado las llaves en casa?* — Could you have left the keys at home?\n\n**Pattern reminder:** Same irregular participles as present perfect (dicho, hecho, visto, escrito, puesto, abierto, etc.).\n\n**Tip:** When preceded by a time clause with *cuando/antes de que/para cuando*, Spanish usually puts a subjunctive in the time clause and future perfect in the main clause: *Cuando vengas, ya habré salido.*"
    }
  ]
}
